Wang Fuzhi

Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692) was a Chinese essayist, historian, and philosopher of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Born into a scholarly family in Hengyang, Hunan province, he displayed early intellectual promise, passing his civil-service examination at the age of twenty-four. However, the invasion of China by the Manchus, founders of the Qing dynasty, disrupted his intended career path. Remaining loyal to the fallen Ming dynasty, Wang Fuzhi initially participated in the resistance against the invaders. Following this, he spent the remainder of his life in hiding, taking refuge at the foot of Chuanshan Mountain, which gave him his pseudonym. He died in 1692, though the exact circumstances and location of his death are uncertain. Wang Fuzhi is credited with writing over a hundred books, though many are now lost. His surviving works have been compiled in the *Chuanshan yishu quanji*. He also authored a commentary on the *Zizhi Tongjian*, titled 'Comments after reading the *Tongjian*'. While a follower of Confucius, Wang Fuzhi critically engaged with the prevailing neo-Confucian philosophy of his time, believing it had distorted the original teachings. He penned his own commentaries on Confucian classics, including five on the *Yijing* (Book of Changes), and systematically developed his unique philosophical framework. His philosophical inquiries spanned metaphysics, epistemology, moral philosophy, poetry, and politics. Key influences on his thought included Confucius himself, as well as the prominent Song dynasty neo-Confucians Zhang Zai and Zhu Xi. In metaphysics, Wang Fuzhi espoused a materialist view, asserting the primacy of *qi* (vital force or energy) and positing that *li* (principle or form), central to Zhu Xi's thought, does not exist independently but is inherent within *qi*. This perspective aligns with and expands upon Zhang Zai's ideas and has been recognized as a form of proto-materialism, particularly in post-1949 China. His metaphysical stance informed a naturalist moral philosophy, which experienced a resurgence of interest in modern China. Wang argued that human desires are natural, unavoidable, and potentially beneficial, forming the basis of our connection to the material world. Moral issues, he believed, arise from a lack of moderation rather than inherent evil in desires. Human nature, for Wang, develops from our material basis through interaction with the world. Regarding epistemology, Wang emphasized the complementary roles of experience and reason. He stressed the importance of sensory observation and careful reasoning, viewing knowledge and action as intrinsically linked, with action serving as the foundation of knowing. He saw the acquisition of knowledge as a gradual, arduous process, rejecting notions of sudden enlightenment. Wang Fuzhi's views on politics and history gained considerable traction in modern China. He advocated for governance that prioritizes the welfare of the people over the interests of rulers. He conceptualized history as a continuous cycle of renewal and progress, influenced by natural laws governing society. He challenged the power of feudal landlords, suggesting higher taxation as a means to empower land-owning peasants. His writings also exhibited a strong anti-Manchu sentiment, which he articulated within a broad historical and philosophical context. He advocated for distinct spheres of influence and mutual respect between Chinese and non-Chinese peoples to prevent conflict and unwanted assimilation. Furthermore, Wang recognized the practical necessity of implementing systems, drawing parallels with Chinese Legalism.