Peter Wessel Zapffe

Peter Wessel Zapffe (18 December 1899 – 12 October 1990) was a Norwegian philosopher, author, artist, lawyer, and mountaineer. He is often noted for his philosophically pessimistic and fatalistic view of human existence. His system of philosophy was inspired by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer, as well as his firm advocacy of antinatalism. His thoughts regarding the error of human life are presented in the essay "The Last Messiah" ("Den sidste Messias", 1933). This essay is a shorter version of his best-known work, the philosophical treatise *On the Tragic* (*Om det tragiske*, 1941). Zapffe's view is that humans are born with an overdeveloped consciousness (self-reflection, self-knowledge) which does not fit into nature's design. The human craving for justification on matters such as life, death and meaning cannot be satisfied, hence humanity has a need that life cannot fully satisfy. The tragedy, following this theory, is that humans spend their time trying to dull their consciousness, to escape the burdens of existential reflection. The human being is thus a paradox, given that self-reflection is one of the prime attributes associated with human consciousness. Death anxiety is a major part of this reflection, according to Zapffe, and the human being is unique among living beings in the ability to reflect on their own forthcoming death. In "The Last Messiah", Zapffe described four principal defense mechanisms that humankind uses to avoid facing this paradox: Isolation, Anchoring, Distraction, and Sublimation. Zapffe was also a prolific mountaineer and took a very early interest in environmentalism. He authored many humorous short stories about climbing and other adventures in nature. He was lifelong friends with the Norwegian philosopher, and fellow mountaineer, Arne Næss.