Lu Hsiang-shan

Lu Jiuyuan (1139–1192), also known as Lu Xiangshan, was a prominent Chinese philosopher and writer who founded the school of the universal mind, the second most influential Neo-Confucian school. He was a contemporary and chief rival of Zhu Xi. Lu's philosophy is characterized by its emphasis on the mind as the ultimate reality. He famously stated, "The universe is my mind, and my mind is the universe," contrasting with Zhu Xi's focus on external principles (*li*). Lu argued for the unity of the human mind and the Way (Dao), asserting that the mind itself encompasses all principles and the universe. He also significantly developed the concept of the "original mind," inherited from Mencius. Lu believed that humans are born with innate moral knowledge and virtue, referring to the four roots of the heart: compassion (humaneness), shame (righteousness), respect (propriety), and knowledge of right and wrong (wisdom). These innate qualities, endowed by Heaven, form the Original Mind shared by all. Lu's thought was deeply influenced by Mencius, whom he saw as developing key ideas. He also incorporated metaphysical aspects from Buddhism and Daoism, particularly Daoism's emphasis on spontaneity and simplicity. While Lu's school gained limited traction in China immediately after his death, it experienced a significant revival during the Ming dynasty through the commentaries and teachings of Wang Yangming. Their combined influence gave rise to the Lu-Wang school, which rivaled Zhu Xi's school of principle. The Lu-Wang school's influence in China was somewhat limited by the state-controlled examination system, which favored Zhu Xi's curriculum. However, it had a greater impact in Japan. Lu Jiuyuan's interpretation of Confucianism continued to be influential in China into the 20th century, being re-popularized by thinkers like Liang Shuming.