Liezi

The Liezi is a Taoist text attributed to Lie Yukou, a philosopher from the c. 5th century BC Hundred Schools of Thought period. Although references to Lie's Liezi exist from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, many scholars believe the content of the current text was compiled around the 4th century CE by Zhang Zhan. The text is divided into eight chapters, often named after historical or mythological figures such as the Yellow Emperor, Confucius, and Yang Zhu. Compared to the poetic narrative of Laozi and the philosophical writings of Zhuangzi, the Liezi is generally considered the most practical of the major Taoist works. Its authenticity has been debated, with some scholars suggesting it may be an ancient work with later interpolations, while others believe it to be a forgery compiled from older sources. The final two chapters, particularly the chapter on Yang Zhu's hedonism and the chapter 'Explaining Conjunctions,' differ significantly in content and philosophical outlook from the rest of the book, leading to speculation about their origins and compilation.