Dissoi logoi

The *Dissoi logoi*, meaning "contrasting arguments" in Ancient Greek, is a rhetorical exercise whose authorship and exact composition date remain unknown. Scholarly consensus suggests it was likely written shortly after the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), a conclusion drawn from internal references. The work's primary purpose is to enhance comprehension of an issue by compelling the reader or student to consider arguments from opposing perspectives. This practice can either solidify one's own stance or facilitate the process of reaching a mutual agreement. Linguistically, the text is predominantly written in the Doric dialect, although it also incorporates elements of Attic and Ionian dialects. Scholars have sought clues for dating the text within its content. One notable point of discussion involves a reference to the sculptor Polyclitus and his son. In the *Dissoi Logoi* (section 6.8), it is stated that Polyclitus taught his son virtue. However, Plato's *Protagoras* mentions Polyclitus having two sons. Since the dramatic events in Plato's *Protagoras* are conventionally dated between 429 and 422 BC, this discrepancy could suggest the *Dissoi Logoi* predates the birth of Polyclitus's second son, thus placing its composition before the 420s BC. Another piece of evidence for dating is a mention of a Spartan victory over Athens and its allies in section 1.8. While this is often interpreted as a reference to the Peloponnesian War, and thus placing the text after 404 BC, there are other historical Spartan victories, such as the Battle of Tanagra in 457 BC, which introduce ambiguity. Therefore, the *Dissoi Logoi* is generally dated to the period between the 5th and early 4th centuries BC. The text is characterized by its confounding nature in presenting its arguments. For instance, the opening chapter presents conflicting views on whether good and bad are distinct or identical, with the author initially aligning with the latter view, only to conclude by asserting their difference. This approach highlights the dialectical method employed. Rosamond Sprague's interpretation suggests that good and bad are fundamentally different, using the concept of war as an example: if they were the same, causing great harm would also equate to conferring great good. The *Dissoi Logoi*, also known as *dialexeis*, embodies a dual argumentation strategy, examining both sides of an issue to uncover deeper truths. It resembles an internal debate, acknowledging contradiction as an inherent aspect of discourse. Daniel Silvermintz posits that while the work ostensibly considers both absolutist and relativist stances, its later chapters defending the sophists reveal an underlying allegiance to relativism. In the context of ancient Greek rhetoric, the *Dissoi Logoi* reflects a pedagogical practice where students were required to argue for both sides of a controversy. John Poulakos views this concept as the capacity to present a contrary argument on any issue at any given moment, essential for persuading individuals to action. Edward Schiappa succinctly frames the idea as "X can be Y and not-Y." Several works from the 5th and 4th centuries BC share thematic similarities with the *Dissoi Logoi*. The text's exploration of opposing arguments resonates with Plato's *Protagoras*, suggesting a potential influence of the *Dissoi Logoi* on Plato or shared roots in the teachings of Protagoras himself. The practice of presenting contrasting arguments within a single oration is seen as a demonstration of skill. Protagoras's assertion that every argument has two contradictory sides, both of which can be defended, underscores the power and adaptability of language. The *Dissoi Logoi* acknowledges the situational nature of rhetoric. The exact purpose of the *Dissoi Logoi* remains a subject of conjecture, with possibilities ranging from a serious but flawed treatise to a parody of Sophistic works or a pedagogical tool for dialecticians. The *Dissoi Logoi* also delves into the nature of language acquisition, concluding that it is learned rather than innate. This conclusion is reached through a thought experiment: if a Greek child were raised in Persia, they would speak Persian, not Greek, indicating that language proficiency is acquired through environment. This aligns with a similar debate in Herodotus's *Histories* (2.2), where King Psammetichus's experiment with raising newborns suggests Phrygian as the first language. Both Herodotus and the author of the *Dissoi Logoi* demonstrate an interest in the development of human language. All known manuscript copies of the *Dissoi Logoi* are found appended to works by the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus. The text was first published in 1570 by Stephanus as an appendix to his edition of Diogenes Laërtius, divided into five chapters. Thomas Gale published a version with his commentary in 1671, and Ernst Weber produced the first edition with a critical apparatus in 1897.